ALEXANDER THE GREAT
On a may morning in 334 BC, a young king reviewed his forces on the European side of the narrow Dardanelles or Hellespont, then led his men aboard boats. When his lead vessel neared the Asian shore, he seized a javelin hurled it into the beach ahead and jumped out, the first on land.
With this symbolic gesture Alexander the Great set out to conquer much of the known world. He nearly succeeded. He was perhaps the greatest general in history, admired, envied and studied by Hannibal, Caesar, Napoleon, George Patton and virtually every cadet in every military academy. His broad vision and questing mind put him head and shoulders above other conquerors.
But only figuratively speaking, for Alexander was unusually short, probably little, if any, over 1.5 meters. He was said to be handsome, prominent forehead, straight nose, jutting jaw and he was the youngest of all great conquerors, master of Asia Minor at 22, of mighty Persia at 25.
He was only 32 when he died in 323 bc, having conquered an empire stretching from today's Yugoslavia to India and including all or parts of Bulgaria, Israel, Egypt, Libya, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, the Soviet Union. More than two-and-a-half centuries later, Julius Caesar wept to read how much Alexander had accomplished by that age and chided himself on being a failure.
With this symbolic gesture Alexander the Great set out to conquer much of the known world. He nearly succeeded. He was perhaps the greatest general in history, admired, envied and studied by Hannibal, Caesar, Napoleon, George Patton and virtually every cadet in every military academy. His broad vision and questing mind put him head and shoulders above other conquerors.
But only figuratively speaking, for Alexander was unusually short, probably little, if any, over 1.5 meters. He was said to be handsome, prominent forehead, straight nose, jutting jaw and he was the youngest of all great conquerors, master of Asia Minor at 22, of mighty Persia at 25.
He was only 32 when he died in 323 bc, having conquered an empire stretching from today's Yugoslavia to India and including all or parts of Bulgaria, Israel, Egypt, Libya, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, the Soviet Union. More than two-and-a-half centuries later, Julius Caesar wept to read how much Alexander had accomplished by that age and chided himself on being a failure.
Alexander's father, King Philip, was such a military and political genius that history might have called him Philip the Great had his son not so far outshone him. Philip honed the small but superb army his son would later lead, raised his Macedonian kingdom to its zenith and brought nearly all of Greece's squabbling cities under his sway.
Victory Over Persia.
Philip chose his son's tutors carefully. One admired Spartan discipline and taught the young prince endurance. Later, the great Aristotle opened other horizons: morals, philosophy, political science, botany, anatomy, history, literature, which would make of Alexander the best-educated conqueror of many ages. Under his pillow at night Alexander kept, first, a dagger against assassins and, second, a unique copy of Homer's Iliad made for him with special notes by Aristotle himself.
In 336 bc, Philip was assassinated, and nearly all his conquered peoples revolted. They had nothing to fear, they thought, from the callow new king, but Alexander struck north, east, west then south into Greece proper. Thebes was mercilessly flattened (except a characteristic Alexander touch - the descendants and home of the Theban poet Pindar). The other Greek cities then opened their gates to him with little or no loss of life.
Alexander now prepared for a Greek crusade into Asia, to punish the Persians for having invaded Greece some 150 years before. Persia was the richest empire, more powerful by far than any state in the known world. Alexander had probably little more than 30,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry. It is said that when the news of this small force reached the Persian King Darius III, he laughed.
In the final battle with Darius, in modern Iraq, Darius' army was so vast - a million soldiers, the rumour went - that Alexander's force seemed a tiny island about to be engulfed by a tidal wave. Then Alexander decided the victory by a classic maneuver learnt from his father. While his centre drew the main enemy attack upon itself, he led a wild but disciplined cavalry charge out around his right wing, then struck in to catch the enemy's unguarded flank. At one point, he came almost near enough to strike Darius with his own spear, but the Persian king broke and fled - eventually to be assassinated by his own men and his army collapsed.
Valiant Leader.
Alexander had left Greece with the assurance of Aristotle that all Persians were soft second-class human beings, fit only to be slaves. But he found them noble, dignified, cultured and - with proper discipline - brave soldiers. He made friends of many and had 30,000 of the best Persian youth chosen to learn Macedonian military discipline and the Greek language.
Aside from a few close friends, most of his men, even the highest and noblest, the so-called Companions, were loath to see their king fraternizing with those they still considered the enemy. They had come to kill and loot the Persians, and Alexander had seemed to agree. When they had reached the capital of Persepolis, he had given them permission to plunder all they liked, sparing only the great royal palace for himself.
Most Macedonian soldiers, including Alexander, drank too much. One night at a huge drunken party inside the palace, somebody shouted out that the Persians had burnt down the temples of Athens 150 years ago. Why shouldn't they burn this palace down now?
Alexander himself led a reeling parade to throw out blazing torches throughout the magnificent building. Soon it was ablaze everywhere. Alexander sobered and tried to have the fire put out, but it was too late. Oddly, this drunken crime paid off in our day : archaeologists digging there found that charred debris had kept the wonderful stone carvings of the palace nearly intact
Alexander fought right beside his men in the front line in hand-to-hand conflict. In attacking a fortified Indian city, for example, with walls so high and well-defended that even the tough Macedonians hesitated, Alexander impatiently seized a ladder and with three friends climbed the walls. In an act of extraordinary courage, he jumped down inside among the enemy. Fierce enemy warriors closed in on him. He fought hard, but at last a meter-long arrow pierced his chest, and he collapsed. One of his Companions held a shield over him.
Philip chose his son's tutors carefully. One admired Spartan discipline and taught the young prince endurance. Later, the great Aristotle opened other horizons: morals, philosophy, political science, botany, anatomy, history, literature, which would make of Alexander the best-educated conqueror of many ages. Under his pillow at night Alexander kept, first, a dagger against assassins and, second, a unique copy of Homer's Iliad made for him with special notes by Aristotle himself.
In 336 bc, Philip was assassinated, and nearly all his conquered peoples revolted. They had nothing to fear, they thought, from the callow new king, but Alexander struck north, east, west then south into Greece proper. Thebes was mercilessly flattened (except a characteristic Alexander touch - the descendants and home of the Theban poet Pindar). The other Greek cities then opened their gates to him with little or no loss of life.
Alexander now prepared for a Greek crusade into Asia, to punish the Persians for having invaded Greece some 150 years before. Persia was the richest empire, more powerful by far than any state in the known world. Alexander had probably little more than 30,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry. It is said that when the news of this small force reached the Persian King Darius III, he laughed.
In the final battle with Darius, in modern Iraq, Darius' army was so vast - a million soldiers, the rumour went - that Alexander's force seemed a tiny island about to be engulfed by a tidal wave. Then Alexander decided the victory by a classic maneuver learnt from his father. While his centre drew the main enemy attack upon itself, he led a wild but disciplined cavalry charge out around his right wing, then struck in to catch the enemy's unguarded flank. At one point, he came almost near enough to strike Darius with his own spear, but the Persian king broke and fled - eventually to be assassinated by his own men and his army collapsed.
Valiant Leader.
Alexander had left Greece with the assurance of Aristotle that all Persians were soft second-class human beings, fit only to be slaves. But he found them noble, dignified, cultured and - with proper discipline - brave soldiers. He made friends of many and had 30,000 of the best Persian youth chosen to learn Macedonian military discipline and the Greek language.
Aside from a few close friends, most of his men, even the highest and noblest, the so-called Companions, were loath to see their king fraternizing with those they still considered the enemy. They had come to kill and loot the Persians, and Alexander had seemed to agree. When they had reached the capital of Persepolis, he had given them permission to plunder all they liked, sparing only the great royal palace for himself.
Most Macedonian soldiers, including Alexander, drank too much. One night at a huge drunken party inside the palace, somebody shouted out that the Persians had burnt down the temples of Athens 150 years ago. Why shouldn't they burn this palace down now?
Alexander himself led a reeling parade to throw out blazing torches throughout the magnificent building. Soon it was ablaze everywhere. Alexander sobered and tried to have the fire put out, but it was too late. Oddly, this drunken crime paid off in our day : archaeologists digging there found that charred debris had kept the wonderful stone carvings of the palace nearly intact
Alexander fought right beside his men in the front line in hand-to-hand conflict. In attacking a fortified Indian city, for example, with walls so high and well-defended that even the tough Macedonians hesitated, Alexander impatiently seized a ladder and with three friends climbed the walls. In an act of extraordinary courage, he jumped down inside among the enemy. Fierce enemy warriors closed in on him. He fought hard, but at last a meter-long arrow pierced his chest, and he collapsed. One of his Companions held a shield over him.
Search for the Unknown.
The frantic Macedonians at that point swarmed in and, seeing their king apparently dead, put to death every man, woman and child in the city as vengeance. But Alexander, learning the soldiers believed him dead, ordered that he be placed in an open boat. As he floated past the soldiers, Alexander, with enormous effort, slightly lifted his right hand. Then he called for his horse, mounted and rode it a few paces, then dismounted to walk a few more. The cheers of his soldiers rose like thunder. No wonder that they had followed such a man wherever he led them.
And where had he not led them! When they reached a remote point in today's Punjab, Alexander's surveyors, who constantly measured the roads they had travelled, announced they had marched 18,100 kilometres in eight years. While his wanderings were military, there is a strong sense that Alexander was drawn on by a thirst for adventure and exploration. An ancient biographer wrote: "He would always have searched beyond for something unknown."
Everywhere he was accompanied by a bevy of savants and technicians. He sent back to Greece samples of seeds, plants, minerals and birds from his long and distant wanderings. He discovered new species - especially the cinnamon - and the variety of spices the Greeks used quintupled after Alexander's journeys.
Aristotle had taught that the world ended just beyond the Hindu Kush mountains, with the earth-encircling great river named Ocean. Alexander came to the Hindu Kush and found that the world went on and on with rich kingdoms stretched out ahead. He eagerly led his men, often fighting, across four of the five great rivers of the Punjab.
But when he came to the fifth, the Hyphasis, his men refused to follow him. So did his generals. They had heard that still larger armies lay before them, but the real factor that broke their spirit was probably the terrible monsoons. For three months the sky was filled with endless rain. In the humid heat, food went bad almost within minutes, armour rusted, leather mildewed overnight, poisonous snakes swarmed into camp quarters.
Stonily Alexander told his men he would go on alone if necessary, and they could go back to Macedonia to tell how they left their king in the midst of the enemy. All were silent.
At last Alexander found a face-saving way out: he announced that soothsayers found all omens unfavourable and, because the gods so willed, he would turn back. Before leaving, he had his men build 12 enormous altars, each dedicated to one of the 12 major gods of Greece. Certainly ruins of these great altars exist somewhere in north-western India but, despite much searching, nobody has yet found them.
The frantic Macedonians at that point swarmed in and, seeing their king apparently dead, put to death every man, woman and child in the city as vengeance. But Alexander, learning the soldiers believed him dead, ordered that he be placed in an open boat. As he floated past the soldiers, Alexander, with enormous effort, slightly lifted his right hand. Then he called for his horse, mounted and rode it a few paces, then dismounted to walk a few more. The cheers of his soldiers rose like thunder. No wonder that they had followed such a man wherever he led them.
And where had he not led them! When they reached a remote point in today's Punjab, Alexander's surveyors, who constantly measured the roads they had travelled, announced they had marched 18,100 kilometres in eight years. While his wanderings were military, there is a strong sense that Alexander was drawn on by a thirst for adventure and exploration. An ancient biographer wrote: "He would always have searched beyond for something unknown."
Everywhere he was accompanied by a bevy of savants and technicians. He sent back to Greece samples of seeds, plants, minerals and birds from his long and distant wanderings. He discovered new species - especially the cinnamon - and the variety of spices the Greeks used quintupled after Alexander's journeys.
Aristotle had taught that the world ended just beyond the Hindu Kush mountains, with the earth-encircling great river named Ocean. Alexander came to the Hindu Kush and found that the world went on and on with rich kingdoms stretched out ahead. He eagerly led his men, often fighting, across four of the five great rivers of the Punjab.
But when he came to the fifth, the Hyphasis, his men refused to follow him. So did his generals. They had heard that still larger armies lay before them, but the real factor that broke their spirit was probably the terrible monsoons. For three months the sky was filled with endless rain. In the humid heat, food went bad almost within minutes, armour rusted, leather mildewed overnight, poisonous snakes swarmed into camp quarters.
Stonily Alexander told his men he would go on alone if necessary, and they could go back to Macedonia to tell how they left their king in the midst of the enemy. All were silent.
At last Alexander found a face-saving way out: he announced that soothsayers found all omens unfavourable and, because the gods so willed, he would turn back. Before leaving, he had his men build 12 enormous altars, each dedicated to one of the 12 major gods of Greece. Certainly ruins of these great altars exist somewhere in north-western India but, despite much searching, nobody has yet found them.
The Greatest Legacy.
As he turned back, Alexander left far more behind him than the lost altars. Not in his wildest dreams could he imagine that for centuries to come Greek classics would be played to nomad tribesmen in Central Persia; that Greek legends would be carved in stone as far away as India; that Oriental rugs and palaces would bear traces of Greek design - all due to his passing. His name, which Asiatics soon corrupted to Sikander, is still famous in Asia today.
Archaeologists claim they can almost trace Alexander's steps by ruined Greek columns, theatres and temples. He founded more cities than any other conqueror, and many were named Alexandria for himself. The one in Egypt was to become a beacon of Greek culture, the soul of the period called Hellenism when Greek became the common culture of West Asia.
But all this was far off when in 326 bc Alexander bowed to his stubborn troops and turned back westwards. He returned home to bad news. He had been away too long. Many of his governors and generals left behind had turned corrupt and savage tyrants, and he had to execute them. Then he was faced with another army rebellion.
Eventually peace was restored, and Alexander began making bold plans for further adventures. He ordered 1,000 new ships built in Babylonia and ordered large new troop forces sent out from Macedonia.
But after one huge drinking party in the spring of 323 bc, Alexander went to bed suffering from a fever. Later theories spoke of poison. But it is more likely he had come down with malaria, perhaps with liver complications from drinking. Word spread among the troops that the end was near when the appointed sailing date was cancelled. The soldiers were allowed to file by where the king lay dying, saluting them - they said later - with a movement of his eyes. It had long been accepted that Alexander was more than human and already many Greek cities worshipped him as divine. Now one general bent down over him and asked softly: "Who shall be your successor?"
The king's lips began an effort at a smile. "The best," he whispered.
But even the best could not perpetuate the fabulous empire of the greatest. Alexander started a new epoch, and nothing could ever be again like the past.
As he turned back, Alexander left far more behind him than the lost altars. Not in his wildest dreams could he imagine that for centuries to come Greek classics would be played to nomad tribesmen in Central Persia; that Greek legends would be carved in stone as far away as India; that Oriental rugs and palaces would bear traces of Greek design - all due to his passing. His name, which Asiatics soon corrupted to Sikander, is still famous in Asia today.
Archaeologists claim they can almost trace Alexander's steps by ruined Greek columns, theatres and temples. He founded more cities than any other conqueror, and many were named Alexandria for himself. The one in Egypt was to become a beacon of Greek culture, the soul of the period called Hellenism when Greek became the common culture of West Asia.
But all this was far off when in 326 bc Alexander bowed to his stubborn troops and turned back westwards. He returned home to bad news. He had been away too long. Many of his governors and generals left behind had turned corrupt and savage tyrants, and he had to execute them. Then he was faced with another army rebellion.
Eventually peace was restored, and Alexander began making bold plans for further adventures. He ordered 1,000 new ships built in Babylonia and ordered large new troop forces sent out from Macedonia.
But after one huge drinking party in the spring of 323 bc, Alexander went to bed suffering from a fever. Later theories spoke of poison. But it is more likely he had come down with malaria, perhaps with liver complications from drinking. Word spread among the troops that the end was near when the appointed sailing date was cancelled. The soldiers were allowed to file by where the king lay dying, saluting them - they said later - with a movement of his eyes. It had long been accepted that Alexander was more than human and already many Greek cities worshipped him as divine. Now one general bent down over him and asked softly: "Who shall be your successor?"
The king's lips began an effort at a smile. "The best," he whispered.
But even the best could not perpetuate the fabulous empire of the greatest. Alexander started a new epoch, and nothing could ever be again like the past.
